- Taxa
- Taxonomic Rank
- Taxonomic hierarchy

Components of a biological taxonomy

From largest/most general to smallest/most specific:

- domain
- kingdom 
- phylum (in zoology) / division (in botany)	
- class 
- order
- family
- genus
- species

Main Taxonomic Ranks in Biology

Carolus Linnaeus ($${}1701$$–$${}1778$$) was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, and physician recognized as the most famous early taxonomist. He developed a standardized system for categorizing and naming organisms, allowing scientists to discuss biodiversity using consistent terminology.

Carolus Linnaeus

Phylogeny is the study of the evolutionary relationships and history of different species of organisms on Earth. Taxonomic classification systems often take these phylogenies into account to organize species based on their evolutionary connections, which can be visually depicted using phylogenetic trees.

Phylogeny

Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology, first published in 1923 by American microbiologist David Hendricks Bergey, summarizes the morphological, physiological, and biochemical properties of known bacteria using Latin binomial classification. A sister publication, the five-volume Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, expands on the original work by providing updated taxonomic descriptions and biological properties for all named prokaryotic taxa, incorporating approved names from the List of Prokaryotic Names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN).

Bergey's Manuals

Because many microbes look morphologically identical and lack easily observable macroscopic features, microbiologists must capture and grow them to study their nonvisual characteristics. These differentiation and classification methods include biochemical tests to identify unique chemicals, serological tests for specific antibodies, and genetic sequencing of DNA and rRNA.

Nonvisual Microbial Identification Methods

Serological tests are utilized in microbiology to identify specific antibodies that will react against the proteins found in certain microbial species. This nonvisual identification method is essential for differentiating and classifying microbes that otherwise appear morphologically identical.

Serological Identification of Microorganisms

Because many bacterial species appear morphologically identical, biochemical tests are crucial for identifying chemicals unique to specific species. The biochemical characteristics of a bacterium provide essential traits for its identification and classification. Specific advanced methods for this analysis include MALDI-TOF analysis, Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) analysis, Phospholipid-derived fatty acids (PLFA) analysis, and proteomic analysis.

Biochemical Identification of Microorganisms

Classifying prokaryotes into species is challenging due to their asexual reproduction and limited morphological features. Traditional taxonomic approaches—such as analyzing cell shape, staining patterns, and biochemical or physiological properties—are now supplemented by modern methods based on molecular genetics and nucleotide sequences.

Classification of Prokaryotes

In biology, taxonomy is the systematic classification, description, identification, and naming of living organisms. It provides a framework for organizing the enormous diversity of life into different groups based on shared characteristics.

Arizona State University

Georgetown University

Google

The study of human behavior, societies, and cultures throughout history (including the present). Anthropology, in broad terms, studies methods to describe and explain the similarities and differences in biology and culture of all humanity in all times and places. 

Anthropology

Evolutionary Biology studies the processes that produced the diversity of life on earth or study of the phylogenetic history of organisms on earth.

Evolutionary Biology

Wikipedia

Breedlove, S. & Watson, N. (2017). Behavioral neuroscience, eighth edition. Oxford University Press.

Behavioral Neuroscience 8th Edition

https://openstax.org/details/books/microbiology/

Microbiology covers the scope and sequence requirements for a single-semester microbiology course for non-majors. The book presents the core concepts of microbiology with a focus on applications for careers in allied health. The pedagogical features of the text make the material interesting and accessible while maintaining the career-application focus and scientific rigor inherent in the subject matter. Microbiology’s art program enhances students’ understanding of concepts through clear and effective illustrations, diagrams, and photographs.

Microbiology is produced through a collaborative publishing agreement between OpenStax and the American Society for Microbiology Press. The book aligns with the curriculum guidelines of the American Society for Microbiology.

OpenStax Microbiology Textbook

- Anthropology & Education Quarterly
- University of Manchester School of Social Sciences 
- Current Anthropology
- Psychological Anthropology 
- Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology
- National Park Service
- Indiana University Bloomington Department of Anthropology 
- What is Primatology? Central Washington University 
- Wikipedia 
- Stanford University Anthropology Department

References for Anthropology

- Margaret Mead
- Franz Boas
- Ruth Benedict
- Edward Sapir

Foundational Anthropologists 

There are conflicting ideas on how to organize the fields of archaeology and anthropology as archaeology in the Americas is a subfield of anthropology: the study of humans. In other parts of the world, archaeology is an independent field of study or part of historical research. The current section on the map follows America's organizational structure placing archaeology under anthropology as a subfield but in other countries, these fields are placed as separate fields of study and sometimes have different terms or meanings associated. 

Difference Between Archaeology and Anthropology 

There are many ways to conduct anthropology. Different approaches to anthropology have developed in many countries. Anthropologists on a global scale work together through international organizations to try and understand more about our lives as humans.

Anthropology on a Global Scale

- Primates
- Rodentia
- Chiroptera
- Soricomorpha
- Cetartiodactyla
- Carnivora 

Examples of Orders in Mammalia Class

Taxonomy in Biology

Key research methods and analytical approaches in anthropology include:
- Holism
- Comparison
- Dynamism
- Fieldwork
- Evaluating context
- Dating methods
- Identifying remains

Key Research Methods in Anthropology

Evolutionary psychology is a field that investigates the ultimate biological causes of behavior by focusing on how universal patterns of cognition and behavior have evolved over time. It operates on the principle that these genetically influenced patterns are adaptations to an organism's physical and social environment, shaped by their contribution to survival and reproductive success.

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