Influenza viruses are classified and identified by their specific hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) spikes. For example, H1N1 caused the pandemics of 1918 and 2009, H2N2 was responsible for the 1957 pandemic, and H3N2 caused the 1968 pandemic.

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Viral spikes are protein structures that extend outward from the capsid on some naked and enveloped viruses. They function to attach the virus to host cells and determine the viral host range.

Viral Spikes

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Microbiology covers the scope and sequence requirements for a single-semester microbiology course for non-majors. The book presents the core concepts of microbiology with a focus on applications for careers in allied health. The pedagogical features of the text make the material interesting and accessible while maintaining the career-application focus and scientific rigor inherent in the subject matter. Microbiology’s art program enhances students’ understanding of concepts through clear and effective illustrations, diagrams, and photographs.

Microbiology is produced through a collaborative publishing agreement between OpenStax and the American Society for Microbiology Press. The book aligns with the curriculum guidelines of the American Society for Microbiology.

OpenStax Microbiology Textbook

Hemagglutinin (H) spikes are protein structures found on the surface of some viruses, such as the influenza virus, that allow the virus to attach to and enter host cells.

Hemagglutinin Spikes

Neuraminidase (N) spikes are enzymes located on the spikes of some viruses, such as the influenza virus, that facilitate the detachment of newly synthesized virions from the host cell surface during their release.

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